The First Cities

 

The First Cities

 

The Indus Valley Civilisation was an ancient civilisation in the Indian sub-continent. It was a bronze age civilisation, extending from North-East Afghanistan to Pakistan and North-West India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, Indus Valley Civilisation was one of the three early civilisations of ancient world. This civilisation is also known as Harappan civilisation.

A. Discovery of Harappa

·         The ruins of Harappa was first described in 1842 by Charles Masson. In 1856, General Alexander Cunningham visited Harappa, where East Indian Railway lines were being laid down. The railway line was connecting the cities of Karachi and Lahore.

·         In 1921, the first Harappan sites were excavated by Sir John Marshall. As this was the first city to be discovered, all other sites from where similar building and other things, were found described as Harappa. The most accepted period of this civilisation is 2500-1750 BC (by carbon-14 dating).

Characteristics of Harappan Civilisation

·         The characteristics of Harappan civilisation can be discussed as follow The area of Indus Valley Civilisation was extended in North Manda (Jammu and Kashmir, South Daimabad (Maharashtra), East Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh) and in West Sutkagendor (Afghanistan).

·         The Harappan cities were found in Punjab, Sind Province, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Baluchistan and Afghanistan.

·         Many of these cities were divided into two or more parts. They were as follow

·         The part in the western direction was smaller, but at an elevated heights were more

·         than the other part. Archaeologists described this higher part as the citadel.

·         The part to the Eastern side was larger, but at a lower height. This is called the lower town by archaeologists.

·         Very often walls of baked brick were built around each part. The bricks were so well made that they have lasted for thousand of years. The bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern (as is done even today while building a house), thus making the walls strong.

Social Condition

The social condition of Harappan civilisation are discussed below. They are as follow

·         Harappan cities were very busy place and perhaps there was matriarchal society. The rulers planned the construction of important buildings in the city.

·         The rulers sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones and other things.

·         The merchants were the most dominant group of the society. There were labourers, farmers, craftsmen, doctors, priest and officers present in this civilisation. There is evidence of slavery system in the civilisation.

·         People were of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian nature. They consumed wheat, barley, lemon, fish, mutton, beef, poultry, pork etc.

·         Men and women both were fond of ornaments like necklace, finger-rings, earings, bangles, bracelets, anklets etc.

·         People enjoyed dancing, singing, fishing, playing by dice and marble. Gambling was a favourite past time of the elder men.

City Life: Houses, Drains and Streets

·        Generally, houses were either one or two storeys high, with rooms built around a courtyard. Most houses had a separate bathing area and some had wells to supply water. The drainage system was very impressive. Water flowed from the houses to the streets which had drains.

·         Underground drainage system connected all houses to the street drains. It was made of mortar, lime and gypsum, covered with brick or stone slabs. This shows developed sense of health and sanitation.

·         Town planning was not uniform. Common feature was grid system i.e. streets cutting across one another at right angles. It divided the town into large rectangular blocks.

New Crafts in the City

 

·         Most of the things that have been found by archaeologists are made of stones, shells and metal, including copper, bronze, gold and silver.

·         Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments and vessels. Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.

·         Perhaps the most striking finds are those of beads, weights and blades. The Harappans also made seals out of stone. These are generally rectangular and usually have an animal carved on them. The Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs.

·         Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago. Pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.

·         The spindle whorls made of terracotta and faience. These were used to spin thread.

 

Falence

Beads, bangles, earings and tiny vessels were made from falence. Faience is a material that is artificially produced. A gum was used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object. The objects were then glazed, resulting in a shiny surface. The colours of the glaze were usually blue or sea green.

 

Trade in Harappan Civilisation

·         The Harappans were engaged in cutting stone, polishing beads, carving seals, metallurgy, ivory work and other crafts work.

·         There is evidence of ship industry in Harappan culture.

·         Agricultural products; cotton goods, terracotta figurines, pottery, certain beads (from Chanhudaro), conch-shell (from Lothal) ivory products etc.

·         The Sumerian text mentioned Indus Valley Civilisation as Meluha.

·         The Sumerian text also refer to two intermediate stations: Dilmun (Baharain) and Makan (Makaran Coast).

·         Seals of Indus valley have been noticed from Ur, Kish and Susa towns of Mesopotamia.

Agriculture in Harappan Civilisation

·         Agriculture was the backbone of the civilisation. The soil was fertile due to inundation in the river Indus and flooding.

·         They used wooden plough share (ploughed field found at Kalibangan) and stone sickles for harvesting. Gabarbands or Nalas enclosed by dam for storing water were a feature in parts of Baluchistan.

·         Crops produced were wheat, barley, dates, peas, sesamum, mustard, millet, ragi, bajra and jowar.

Religious Life of Harappan Civilisation

·         A terracotta figure where a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a women, represent Mother Goddess (Goddess of Earth).

·         Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-siva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne and having three faces and two horns.

·         He is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a buffalo and two deer appear at his feet.

·         Trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were worshipped. No temple has been found though idolatry was practiced.

·         Indus people believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.

Other Cities of Harappan Civilisation

The other cities of Harappan civilisation are explain below. They are as follow

1. Mohenjodaro

·         It is one of the largest site and was discovered by RD Bannerjee in 1922 situated on the river Indus. In Sindhi language, the word Mohenjodaro means mound of the dead.

·         Other buildings include on oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a big rectangular building which must have served administrative purpose.

·         The Great bath is the most important place of public. It was used for bathing. Steps at either end lead to the surface. There were changing rooms with inlet to the tank and outlet to drown water. It measured 39 feet (length), 23 feet (breadth) and 8 feet (depth).

·         Other findings are Pashupati seals bronze image of dancing girl, 3 cylindrical seals and steatite image of a bearded man, clay figurines of mother Goddess, dice, idol of Yogi and a granary.

2. Lothal

·         It is one of the most prominent cities of Indus Valley Civilisation. It was situated near the river Bhargava.

·         The only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. Evidence for the earliest use rice and fire altars. Here, the largest number of seals and granary have been discovered.

3. Kalibanga

·         The meaning of Kalibanga is 'black bangles'. Kalibanga is situated in Rajasthan.

·         It is one of the two Indus cities, which have both proto-Harappan and Harappan culture phases.

·         In the proto-Harappan phase, the fields were ploughed.

·         Discovery of platforms with five altars.

4. Dholavira

·         It is situated in Khadir Beyle in the Rann of Kutch region of Gujarat. It was divided into three parts.

·         One of the most significant discoveries at Dholavira was made in one of the side rooms of the Northern Gateway of the city.

·         There is evidence of Harappan writing in Dholavira.

The End of Harappan Civilisation

Around 3900 years ago, there was a beginning of a major change. People stopped living in many of the cities. Writing, seals and weights were no longer used. Archaeologists and scholars suggest for following reasons for the decline of Indus Valley Civilisation. Probably the rivers dried up. May be there was deforestation.

     This could have happened because fuel (wood) was required for baking bricks and for smelting copper ores. May be grazing by large herds of cattle, sheep and goat may have destroyed the green cover. In some areas, there may have been floods, which washed away the entire population.

 

Year	Site	Location	Excavated by	Major findings
1921	Harappa	Sahiwal District, Punjab in the banks of Ravi	Daya Ram Sahni	Piece of Pottery with Indus Script Cubical Limestone Weight Faience Slag Sandstone statues of Human anatomy Copper Bullock cart Granaries Coffin burials (Only founded in Harrapa) Terracotta Figurines
1922	Mohenjo-Daro	Larkana District Of Sind on the bank of Indus	R. D Banerjee	Great bath Granary Unicorn Seals (Most numbers of it in here) Bronze dancing girl statue Seal of a man with deers, elephants, tiger and rhinos around- Considered to be Pashupati Seal) Steatite statue of beard man Bronze buffalo
1929	Sutkagendor	Baluchistan on Dast river	Stein	Trade point between Harappa and Babylon Flint Blades Stone Vessels Stone Arrowheads Shell Beads Pottery Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) associated Copper-Bronze Disc
1931	Chanhudaro	Mullan Sandha, Sind on the Indus river	N G Majumdar	Bangle Factory InkPot Bead makers shop The footprint of a dog chasing a cat Cart with a seated driver Note: It is the only city without a citadel
1935	Amri	Close to Balochistan, on the bank of Indus river	N G Majumdar	Antelope evidence Rhinoceros’ evidence
1953	Kalibangan	Hanumangarh District, Rajasthan on the bank of Ghaggar river	Amlanand Ghose	Lower fortified town Wooden drainage Copper Ox Evidence of earthquake Wooden plough Camel’s bone Fire alters Camel’s bones Furrowed land
1953	Lothal	Gujarat on Bhogva river near the Gulf of Cambay	R. Rao	Port Town Graveyard Ivory weight balance Copper dog First manmade port Dockyard Rice husk Fire alters Chess-playing
1964	Surkotada	Gujarat	J P Joshi	Bones of horses Beads Stone Covered Beads
1974	Banawali	Fatehabad district of Haryana	R S Bisht	Beads Barley Oval shaped settlement The only city with radial streets Toy plough The largest number of barley grains
1985	Dholavira	Gujarat in Rann of Kutchchh	R S Bisht	Exclusive water management Only site to be divided into three parts Giant water reservoir Unique water harnessing system Dams Embankments Stadium Rock – Cut architecture

 

 

B.The Vedic Age

 

The history of Vedic India is known largely through its religious texts, the Vedas, which gave the period its name. Vedas recorded not only the religion of the Vedic people, but also details of their lives that gave us, a look at their political, social and economic pattern.

The Rig Veda, the oldest literary creation not only in India, but in the entire Indo-European literature too, talks of a simple socio-economic, political set-up and religious life.

Early Vedic Period

·         According to Rig Veda, Aryans had the knowledge of the Indus valley (Saptasindhava). Indus is the most mentioned river in Rig Veda. Saraswati (Naditarna) is considered as the holiest river. It is identified with Hakra Ghaggar channel in Haryana and Rajasthan, but in Rig Vedic description, it seems to be the Avestan river Harakhvati, from where the name Saraswati was transferred to India.

·         Samudra referred to collection of water and not sea. They had knowledge of Himavat or the snow mountain Dhawa (desert land) and Majuvant, from which Aryans got Soma and intoxicating drink.

Later Vedic Period

·         Aryans occupied upper Gangetic Doab. In this period, the Aryans moved into the Eastern areas as is evident from the story of Videha Madhava in Satpath. Brahmin, where they moved Eastward Videha.

·         The later Vedas gives three broad divisions of India viz, Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India) and Dakshina Patha (Southern India).

The Vedas

·         The term Veda is derived from the root word 'Vid', which means 'to know', signifying knowledge par excellence. The Vedas are collection of hymns, prayers, charms and sacrificial formulae.

·         Vedas are called Apaursheya (not made by man) and Niyta (existing in all eternity). Puru, Yadu and Bharta are mentioned in Vedas as Jana.

·         The Rishis to whom these books are described are known as Mantradrashta meaning inspired saints, who received the hymns directly from the supreme creator.

·         Apart from its literary significance, the Vedas throw light on the political, religions, social and economic aspects of the Vedic period.

The Vedic period divided into four Vedas Le. Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, which are as follow

1. Rig Veda

·         The oldest Veda is the Rig Veda, composed about 3500 years ago. Agni, Indra and Som were the three deities who had great importance in Rig Veda.

·         It consists of 1028 hymns and divided into X Mandalas (books). The Mandalas II to VII are the oldest and known as family books composed by Gritsamada Vishamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaja and Vashistha.

·         Mandalas VIII and IX belong to middle time. Mandalas I and X are the last to be compiled. In IIIrd Mandala, composed by Vishvamitra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri, we find the famous Gayatri Mantra in this Mandala.

·         The IXth Mandala is completely devoted to the Vedic God Soma (The Lord of Plants). The X Mandala contains the famous Purushasukta hymn in which origin of Varna system is discussed.

·         The Rig Veda language is in old or vedic sanskrit, which is different from the sanskrit. The river Ganga and Yamuna named once in Rig Veda.

Sanskrit Language

Sanskrit is part of Indo-European languages family. Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and Sindhi and many European languages such as English, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish also belong to this family.

 

2. Sama Veda

·         Collection of hymn taken mainly from the VIIIth and IXth mandalas of the Rig Veda and set to tune for the purpose of singing.

·         It is known as the Book of Chants and the origin ef India...usic is tracted to it. The hymns of Sama Veda were meant to be sung at the time of Soma sacrifice by the Udgatri priests.

3. Yajur Veda

·         It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifices. It is primarily a guide for the use of the Adhvaryu priests.

·         This Veda is in both verse and prose. The two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda. It is divided into two parts, which are as follow

(i) Krishna Yajur Veda (Black) contains not only the hymns, but also prose commentaries.

(ii) Shukla Yajur Veda (White) contains only hymns.

4. Atharva Veda

·         The Atharva Veda (book of magical formulae) contains charms and spells in verse, towards off evils and diseases it preserves many popular cults and superstitions. It is believed to be work of non-Aryans. It contains 731 hymns.

·         Indian medical science called Ayur Veda, its origin from Atharva Veda.

 

The Brahmanas

·         These are treatise relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. They are elaborate commentaries on the various hymns in the Vedas.

·         The Brahmanas of the Rig Veda are intended for the use of the invoking priest (Hotri). Shatpatha Brahmana is the lengthiest and the most important of all the Brahmanas.

·         It throws light on the geographical shift of the Aryans towards the Eastern Gangetic Plains during the later Vedic period.

·         The story of the prince Videgha Mathava provides clear indication towards this geographical expansion.

The Aranyakas

Aranyaka literally means the 'forest' and therefore.Aranyakas are also known as forest books. It deals with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy.

The Upanishads

·         Upanishads literally means 'Be seated at the feet of the Guru to receive the teachings.' The Upanishad imparts philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning. They are also called Vedanta. There are 108 Upanishads.

·         Brihadaranyanka Upanishad provides the first reference of the idea of rebirth. Later, the idea appears in a slightly fuller form in the Chandogya Upanishads. It is one of the oldest Upanishads.

The Vedangas

·         The period after 600 BC is called Sutra period. Vedangas were compiled during this period.

·         The Vedangas are called Smriti or literature handed down by tradition, because they are of human origin. There are six Vedangas, which are as follow.

Social Life of Vedic Period

·         Tribal society with kingship as the basis of social structure. Man was identified with his tribe called as Jana. Jana was divided into Vis (group of villages) under Vishpati i.e. Vis into Grama (village) under Gramani and Gramsa into Kulas (family) headed by Kulapa.

·         The tribal society was broadly divided into priests, warriors and the people. Shudra is first mentioned in tenth books (latest addition) of Rig Veda. The Non-Aryans consisted of Dasyus and Dasas. Slavery was rampant at that time. No evidence is available for child marriage.

·         The society came to be divided into four Varnas called the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.

·         Brahmanas emerged as the most powerful class, Vaishyas were the tribute payers. First reference is given in Purushasukta.

·         The upper three Varnas were entitled to Upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread, but Shudras were deprived of it and were also not allowed to recite the Gayatri Mantra.

·         The Institution of Gotra was established and no marriage could take place in same Gotra.

Economic Life of Vedic Period

·         Rig Vedic people were pre-dominantly pastoral. Cow (Gau) was the most important animal (mentioned 176 time in Rig Veda).

·         Goumata referred to men prosperous with many cattles.The terms of war were gavisthi or the search for cows.

·         The cow seems to have been most valuable wealth of all.

·         Cattle breeding was their main occupation. They domesticated horse, goat, dog and ass. Wild animals known were lion, elephant and bear.

·         Agriculture was secondary occupation. Yava (barley) has been mentioned in Rig Veda. Shifting agriculture was practiced.

·         Panis formed the great trading class. They are condemned in several texts for their greed and hard heartedness.

·         Ayas (copper and bronze) was the common metal in use and metal smelters were called Karmar. There were two Ayas-Shyam Ayas and Krishna Ayas. Nishkas, Hiranyapindas and Manas were used as recognised pieces of weights and value.

·         Satapatha Brahmana describes the various stages of agriculture such as ploughing, sowing, reaping and threshing, both kharif and rabi crops were grown.

·         Rice (Vrithi) and wheat (Godhuma) become the chief crops of the later Vedic Aryans, though they continued to produce barley (Yava).

Religious Life of Vedic Period

The religious life of Vedic period was very rich and can be explained in following manners

·         Vedic religion was what we today term as Henotheism or Kathenostheism, pertaining to a belief in one God, supreme or specially veneer traded as the God of one's household.

·         Henotheism or Kathenotheism, i.e. a belief in single Gods, each in turn standing out as the highest.

·         During Vedic period, the Gods are usually stated to be thirty three in number, divided into three groups, corresponding to the three divisions of the universe, namely terrestrial (Prithvisthana), atmospheric or intermediate (aniarikshasthana) and celestial (dyusthana).

 

1	Gods	Description
2	Indra	Also known as Purandhara (Breaker of Forts). Plays the role of warlord and also considered as rain God and also a warrior and a king. His white elephant is Airavata.
3	Agni	Known as fire God. Acted as an intermediary between Gods and men.
4	Varuna	Personified water was supposed to uphold the Rita or natural order called the world sovereign or lord of human morality.
5	Pushan	Protector of cattle in early vedic period, now became the God of Shudras.
6	Soma	God of plants, third most important deity in the Rig Veda on the basis of number of hymns.
7	Prajapati	The creater God. Supreme position during later Vedic Age.
8	Surya	Sun God who was worshipped in five forms; Surya, Savitri (God of Light), Mitra, Pushan (God of Marriage), Vishnu (one who covered Earth in three steps i.e.. Upakrama).
9	Maruts	Personify the storm
10	Aditi	Goddess of eternity
11	Arnayani	Goddess of forest
12	Usha	Goddess of clawn
13	Sarma	Messager of Gods
14	Vastaspati	God of settlements

 

C. Janapadas

·         The king who performed big sacrifices were recognised as being king of janapadas (The word 'janapada' literally means the 'land where the jana set its foot and settled down').

·         Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas, such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut (Uttar Pradesh) and Atranjikhera, near Etah (Uttar Pradesh).

·         People of these janapadas lived in huts and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops like rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesamum and mustard. These settlements coincided with the beginning of the Iron Age in India, when implements made of iron started being used.

·         Plates and bowls were the most common vessels made up of painted grey ware.

·         These grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. These were used on special occasions, for important people and to serve special food.

D. Mahajanapadas

·         About 2500 years ago, some Janapadas became more important than others, and were known as Mahajanapadas.

·         Most Mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these capital cities were also fortified.

·         This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them.

·         Forts were built because

(i) people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed protection.

(ii) some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building large, tall and impressive walls around their cities.

(iii) the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king.

·         The new rajas also began maintaining armies for their defence. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year.

·         Besides food and lodging, some payments were also made using punch marked coins.

 

LIST OF MAHAJANAPADAS AND THEIR CAPITALS
SR.	MAHAJANAPADAS	CAPITALS
1	KASHI(BANARAS)	VARANASI
2	KOSHALA(AYODHYA)	SHRAVASTI
3	ANGA(EAST BIHAR)	CHAMPA
4	VAJJI(NORTH BIHAR)	VAISHALI
5	MALLA(GORAKHPUR REGION)	PAVAPURI
6	CHEDI	SUKTIMATI
7	VATSA	KAUSHAMBI
8	KURUS(MEERUT-DELHI REGION)	HASTINAPUR
9	PANCHALA	KAMPILYA
10	MATSYA(JAIPUR)	VIRATNAGARA
11	SURASENA	MATHURA
12	ASHMAKA	POTANA OR POTALI
13	AVANTI	MAHISHMATI
14	GANDHARA(PESHAWAR AND PAWALPINDI)	TAXILA
15	KAMBOJA(NORTH-EAST KINGDOM)	RAJPURA
16	MAGADHA	RAJGRIHA OR RAJGIR

 

E. In Early States Tax Management

·         The rulers of the mahajanapadas used to build huge forts and maintained big armies, for that they needed more resources.

·         They also needed officials to find and collect these resources. So, they started collecting regular taxes. The amount of taxes collected from various groups of persons was

(i) Taxes on crops (known as bhaga or a share) was fixed at 1/6th of what was produced.

(ii) Taxes on crafts persons were in the form of labour e.g. a weaver or a smith would have to work for a day every month for the king.

(iii) Herders paid taxes in the form of animals and animal produce (milk, meat, hides etc.)

(iv) There were also taxes on goods that were bought and sold through trade.

(v) Hunters and gatherers provide forest produce to their king as tax.

 

In Early States Changes in Agriculture

Agriculture changed during the beginning of state in following ways

·         The growing use of iron ploughshares. These could turn over heavy, clayey soil better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. People began transplanting paddy instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields.

·         This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Since, this was backbreaking work, slave men and women (dasas and dasis) and landless agricultural labourers (kammakaras) had to do this work.

 

Rise of Magadh Empire

The reason for the rise of Magadha Empire are discussed below. They are as follow

·         Out of the sixteen Mahajanapadas four were very powerful. They were Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti and Koshala. The period from 4th to 6th centuries BC saw the struggle for supremacy among these four Mahajanapadas.

·         Ultimately Magadha emerged as the most powerful and prosperous kingdom in North India. The founder of Magadha was Brihadratha,

·         The two rulers who were most powerful were first Bimbisara and then Ajatashatru, who used all their might to conquer other janapadas.

·         Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the North-West part of the sub-continent.

·         Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna).

·         Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son river flowed through Magadha. These rivers were important for transportation, water supplies for drinking and other needs, as well as making the land fertile.

 

Vajji

·         While Magadha become a powerful kingdom, Vajji with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar) was under a different form of government known as gana or sangha.

·         In this form of government, there were many rulers known as Rajas. These rajas acted in union, in the following ways

-They performed rituals together. They met in assemblies and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. However, women, dasas and kammakaras were not allowed to participate in these assemblies.

-Two famous persons who founded new religions at around this time, Buddha and Mahavira, originally belonged to ganas or sanghas. Some of the most vivid descriptions of life in a sangha can be found in Buddhist books.

·         Although, Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas these lasted till about 1500 years ago when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers.

 

Early States of the World Outside India

About 2500 years ago, the people of Athens in Greece set-up a form of government, which was called a democracy, which lasted for about 200 years.

The main pillars of this form of government were as follow

·         All free men over the age of 30 were recognised as full citizens.

·         All citizens assembled atleast 40 times a year to decide on important matters.

·         Appointments for many positions were made through lottery. All those who wanted to be chosen gave in their names and then some were selected through lottery.

·         Citizens were expected to serve in the army and the navy.

·         However, the following categories of persons living there were not considered citizens.

·         Foreigners lived and worked in Athens as merchants and crafts persons.

·         Several thousand slaves lining in Athens, who worked in mines, fields, households and workshops.